The history of civilisation is closely connected to the history of bread: the two go together like... well, like bread and butter. In the hippy slang of the 1960s and ’70s, “bread” meant “money”, and it’s easy to see why. Bread throughout history has been used as a currency: in ancient Egypt, for instance, workers were paid in bread and beer.
Across the ages, bread prices have been a barometer of social stability – or otherwise. In ancient Rome, the price of grain – and therefore bread – was fixed by the governing authorities to keep the populace from rioting. The Roman satirist and writer Juvenal scathingly observed that the common people were easily pacified with “bread and circuses”.
The Jewish practice of eating only unleavened bread during Passover harks back to the Israelites’ liberation from Egypt, when they left in such a hurry, it is said that they had no time to allow the bread to rise.
In Britain, schoolchildren are taught the story about King Alfred letting the cakes burn – in fact, it’s now thought that they would have been small loaves of bread. In London in 1666 the Great Fire of London started in a bakery in Pudding Lane. Bread has also been the cause of riots, such as the Boston bread riots of the early 18th century and the Southern bread riots that swept across the American Confederacy in the 19th century.
The origins of bread
But let’s go back to the beginning. It’s known that ancient people in what is now the Middle East gathered wild grains and made them into flatbreads – unleavened breads which were simply rolled out and cooked on a hot surface. In present-day Jordan, archaeologists have found the charred remains of flatbreads from more than 15,000 years ago, made from barley, wheat, oats and tubers.
Around 12,000 years ago came the beginnings of agriculture and the cultivation of grains. Traces of bread have been found at Neolithic sites dating back around 9,000 years. These would have been unleavened flatbreads, made without yeast. It’s not known when yeast came into the equation but it’s likely that it was discovered by accident: yeast is present everywhere – in the air, and also in flour itself. All it takes is for flour mixed with water to be left sitting around for a few days for the yeasts to activate. This is how the ancient Egyptians made their bread (it’s also how we make what is now known as sourdough bread). The Egyptians left behind ample evidence of their bread-making in the form of ovens, pictorial depictions of bread-making, and loaves of bread in tombs.
We know what bread looked like in the days of the Roman Empire because intact loaves were found in excavations of the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The Herculaneum bread, preserved in charcoal, is a round loaf, divided into segments, still bearing the imprinted mark of the baker. We also know what it probably tasted like, because – in an experiment in collaboration with the British Museum – Italian chef Giorgio Locatelli made a replica of the Herculaneum loaf, using buckwheat flour and a sourdough starter. A video of this fascinating process can be seen on YouTube.
A slice of history
In medieval Europe, serving and eating food was usually a very spartan affair: chairs were almost unheard of, and inns and taverns were mostly furnished, if at all, with crude benches, trestle tables and barrels. In those days, before the arrival of such luxuries as pub furniture and plates, food was often served on a slab of stale bread – the whole thing was consumed. In Britain, this bread was known as a “trencher”. Today, Sally Lunn’s, the famous historic eating house in Bath which dates back to the 15th century, still features “trencher” meals on its menu, though the meal is served on a plate to minimise mess.
Bakers were at the centre of medieval village life; it took seven years of apprenticeship to learn the trade, and they guarded the secrets of their craft fiercely. As a “thank you”, it was widespread practice for bakers to open their ovens to the village to cook their Sunday meals. This still happens in some European countries.
As time went on, bakers were better able to control and cultivate yeasts, which gave rise, if you’ll excuse the pun, to a more reliable and consistent product. By the 19th century many bakers were obtaining yeast from brewers, and then from commercial yeast makers; this was the start of the mass-production of bread, and with the invention of the slicing machine in the early 20th century, the white-sliced loaf had become ubiquitous.
Because white flour lacks some of the nutrients present in wholemeal flour, in Britain regulations were brought in after the second world war to compel bakers to fortify white bread with iron and B-vitamins – regulations that are still in force today.
Going against the grain
So, what does all this mean for anyone who runs a pub, café or restaurant? Today’s customers are demanding a wider choice of breads: it’s no longer enough to offer factory-sliced white bread or tasteless white rolls. Today we are witnessing a consumer reaction against the industrialised, mass-produced bread of the postwar era. As the American chef Julia Child once said: “How can a nation call itself great if its bread tastes like Kleenex?” Artisan bakeries are spreading across our high streets, while bakery/café chains such as Gail’s are offering organic bread and baked goods in stylish surroundings.
Italian breads such as focaccia (which dates back to ancient Roman times) and ciabatta (invented in 1982 by an Italian baker in response to the popularity of French baguettes) have become commonplace. Pitta bread, a partly leavened bread, is widespread. Wholemeal bread has made a comeback. Dark European breads such as rye and pumpernickel are gaining in popularity. Wraps, made using unleavened flatbreads, are also increasingly widespread. The Great British Bake Off has acquired a large following among younger people, who are witnessing the making of exotic breads from around the world – this year’s series featured korovai, an elaborate eastern European sweet bread often seen at weddings. More prosaically, contestants were also asked to make garlic naan during “bread week”.
Bread and butter business
And then there’s sourdough, which today is made, just as it was by the ancient Romans and Egyptians, using a “starter” containing naturally occurring yeasts, which give it its characteristic tangy taste. Its re-emergence in recent years reflects consumer desire for bread that has more flavour and a chewy texture (helpfully for caterers and retailers, it also lasts longer). It’s very popular toasted with scrambled eggs or (a favourite among millennials) mashed avocado. Because it rises more slowly, it’s said to have greater health benefits than regular bread.
Remember too that there is rising demand for gluten-free bread – made using ingredients such as rice flours, maize, flax seeds and potatoes.
So your menu needs to reflect today’s tastes. If you run a café, then bread will be... well, the bread and butter of your business, a staple part of your offering, so it’s worth sourcing a wide range of breads for your menu. Likewise in pubs and restaurants, where a good menu will offer a range of “proper” breads. Of course, there will still be conservative consumers who think that “focaccia” is a kind of Italian insult. But Britain’s appetite for new kinds of bread is, like a well-kneaded loaf, continuing to rise.